Alcohol drinks are a kind of material culture shared by all nationalities of the world. Before the advent of distillation machines, wine could only be made the primitive way. Using crops to make wine is a special characteristic in Chinese alcohol-making history. The yellow wine, or rice wine, being one of the three main kinds of alcohol beverage (rice wine, grape wine and beer), is known as the model of oriental winemaking.

Detail of Qing Dynasty painting Evening Banquet with Pupils by Ding Guanpeng.

    Winemaking and drinking originated in China long ago. Ancient writings point to multiple origins of alcoholic drinks, but only a small portion can be taken as true history. In common society, Dukang is worshipped as the god of wine, as he was the one who first made wine. However, as early as the Shang Dynasty, the Chinese already widely practiced the making of alcohol. From existing oracle bone and bronze inscriptions, we learn that many people of the Shang used wine as offerings to ancestors. At the same time, drinking wine was already popular. In more recent archeological excavations, Shang Dynasty winemaking sites were discovered. In 1980, in Henan Province, ancient wines from the late Shang period (about 3,000 years ago) was discovered in archaic tombs, and are now kept at Beijing Palace Museum. It can be considered the oldest wine in China. Being large in land mass and with abundant natural resources, China's different agricultural crops, water quality and winemaking techniques in each region, gave birth to many excellent types of liquor throughout the land.

    A very important winemaking innovation by the ancient Chinese was the use of yeast. The primitive forms of yeast were molded or germinated crops, mainly wheat and rice. People reformed the molded crops to make distiller's yeast. The yeast contains bacteria that turn starch into sugar and saccharomycete, which facilitate the forming of alcohol. Different kinds of yeast are adopted in different regions, making for more varieties in wines. In the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589 A.D.), winemaking techniques have already reached tremendously high levels. The book Qimin Yaoshu recorded a dozen ways of making wine yeast.

     This natural way of wine fermentation, after thousands of years, has become quite a proven technique. Its basic winemaking principle and technique is still in use today. Using this method to make wine relies mostly on experience and is limited to small-scale production, as it is usually performed through manual labor. Wines produced in such a way have no exact scientific testing standards.

    The basic ingredient for rice wine varies by region. In the north, it is sorghum, millet and glutinous millet. While in the south, mostly rice (sticky rice being the best choice) is used. The wine's alcohol content is usually around 15 proof, and becomes tastier as time goes by. Yellow wine's color is not always yellow, as some are black or red. When filtering technique for wine has not been fully develope d, wines are usually muddy in transparency. The ancients referred to such as "white wine" or "turbid wine." Starting in the Song Dynasty, Chinese culture and economic centers moved southward, the production of yellow wine became even more prevalent in the southern provinces. By the Yuan Dynasty, spirit drinks popularized in the north as yellow wine production slumped. The southerners do not drink spirit as much as the northerners, therefore yellow wine production remained high in the south. In the Qing Dynasty, yellow wine made in Shaoxing of Zhejiang Province dominated the domestic and even overseas markets. Even now, drinkers of yellow wine still prefer "Shaoxing Yellow Wine."

Shaoxing Yellow Wine being transported to other regions by way of water channels.

The process of making Shaoxing yellow wine.Steaming rice(1)--Cooling (2)--Airproof fermentation (3)--Adding water (4)--Distillation

    Traditional Chinese white liquor (spirits) is the most characteristic of distilled alcohol. At around 6th to 8th century, China already has its distilled liquor. Primitive distillation was another one of the Chinese contributions to winemaking. From the end of the 19th to early 20th century, after the introduction of microbiology, biochemistry and engineering sciences from the West, China's traditional winemaking technology experienced great changes. Mechanization standards greatly improved and production yield increased as a result. Guizhou and Sichuan provinces in southwestern China are the two publicly acclaimed provinces in production of superior grade white wine. Even so, due to differences in natural produce, every region in the north and south use different base ingredients. Nearly every province would produce its own unique label with tastes to match the local provincial inhabitants. Hence Chinese wines come in no less than forty to fifty varieties, much more than what is known internationally, namely the Luzhou Laojiao, Guizhou Maotai, Shangxi Felqiu and Shaanxi Xifengjiu. China's oldest beer brewery was built in 1900 in the city of Harbin. Even though beer brewing has only been in China for less than one hundred years, beer is already the top selli ng alcohol in China.

    Wine since ancient times were closely interwoven with peoples' daily lives. People use wine to pay tribute to ancestors, showing respect; or for self-enjoyment while writing poems and composing rhymes; or when treating friends and family, heightening the lively atmosphere. Wine undoubtedly holds a very important place in Chinese culture and living.

    Ancient kings and princes' banquets and feasts cannot go on without wine. All kinds of wine vessels therefore became important objects of courtesy. The most important of which were the bronze Jue, Zun, Yi and other drink containers which symbolize social status and ranks. From archeological findings around China, bronze wine vessels were once the fashion of the times. The lifting of the ban against wine for the common citizens usually takes place during times of changes in dynastic rule or the succession of sovereignty, as well as important imperial activities.

    The Chinese in ancient times often used crops to make wine. Therefore a good or bad harvest during the year strongly influenced the decisions of the dynastic rulers to either impose wine ban or certain amount of wine tax. And correspondingly, a strong or weak year for wine production reflected the crop yield of the year. Wine in the past was directly related to people's livelihood and taxation. Since the third year of the Tianhan period under Emperor Han Wudi (98 A.D.), after the central court exercised the exclusive right to sell and buy wine, duties collected from the wine industry became an important source of governrnent treasury revenue of subsequent

feudal dynasties.

    Wine and most Chinese literati have always had an intimate connection. In medieval times, there were many written accounts of the important personage of the Wei & Jin Period (220-420 A.D.) and poets of the Tang Dynasty being wine lovers. It was the two very important periods linking "wine and Chinese culture" together in history. In actuality, the connection between the literati and wine

This is a bronze distillatory made between 1st century B.C. to 1st century A.D.with a height of 25.5 cm.The diameter at the opening of the piece of zeng is 6 cm. This distillatory proves that as early as at the turn of the Common Era, China has already started to apply distillation techniques

Distilled rice wine from sorghum is rather common.

Sometimes they expressed zealous objections about the government after having drinks. Such acts are a reflection of the helplessness of the literati class during those restless years. From then on, binge drinking by scholars is no longer viewed as corrupt and hideous, rather regarded as admirable and romantic. It seems as though all Tan~ Dynasty poets enjoy drinking boldly. Famous poets such as Li Bai and Du Fu are all great men of liquor known throughout China and abroad. Their poems have the nature of wine and wine fuels their creativity. Traditional Chinese art forms such as poetry, music, painting, calligraphy and others are all very emotionally expressive. Wine can help the artist achieve the uninhibited natural and honest state of being, stir up their creative juices. So people now imagine a very romantic connection between wine, poetry and the literati.

    The Chinese pay attention to the "drinking mood," something that one must have to truly enjoy drinking as a real charm of life. "One thousand cups of wine is too few when with a bosom friend," a common saying that suitably embodies the emphasis which the Chinese places on harmony of relations between people, meaning to share with others moments of joy. Wine enriched the affections of the Chinese. Playing finger-guessing games, composing impromptu music, poetry or even dance, are all fun-adding games for drinking during banquets. They are also the highlight of Chinese drinking habits. Both sides playing the drinking games, sometimes, are like two opposing armies, swinging their arms and jutting their fists, while howling the game lyrics. The game is a match of wits, courage and alcohol tolerance, and is truly quite fun. Dining together and playing drinking games has become a unique and favorite pastime of the Chinese, its objective is to communicate friendship and increase family love. So a banquet could last for quite a long time, ranging from a couple of hours to the entire night.

    Hospitality of the Chinese is expressed to the fullest extent at a banquet with alcohol drinks. The communication of affection most often gets a boost of sincerity and directness. Many places welcome and treat guests with wine. When old friends reunite and when friends meet, a few cups of wine can be most delightful as wine produces an air o! warmth and harmony. "Bottom's up" is a custom practiced widely in both south and north China. When a banquet begins, the host usually delivers a few words ot welcome, follows by the first toast. The host first finishes his cup until the last drop, in what we call "finishing first as respect" for the guests. Sometimes, the host will also need to propose toasts to the guests individually in the order of importance. Anyone not returning the favor would be considered disrespectful and would often be subject to punishment in the form of more drinks. Therefore, guests must return the toast to the host. Guests can also propose toasts amongst themselves. Moreover, it is best not to be tardy for a banquet, or the host and guests will suggest punishing the late attendee with many drinks. When proposing a toast, the initiator and the receiver must all stand up. Most toasts are limited to three cups.

The more the guest drinks, the happier the host will be. A very interesting thing is that the toast initiator would like others to drink more than he or she. Especially for some very hospitable minority nationalities, drinking unrestrained is a "must do" when with a guest. Take the Mongolian nationality for instance, the host often hold bowls of wine in both hands while singing the toast song, and keep feeding drinks to the guests one by one until they are all completely drunk. The Miao, Dai, and Yi nationalities of southwestern China practice a "sucking" method when having alcohol. This involves using a long reed stalk or bamboo shoot to suck from large wine jars or pots. It is usually done in the order from the eldest to the youngest person. Wine holds another clever use among the minority nationalities in one of the oldest traditions. When becoming blood siblings or swearing oath of alliance, chicken or sheep is slaughtered, or sometimes arms of the oath takers are cut, to allow blood to drip into bowls of wine. The minorities  element for people who drink it.

    People who can still keep their composure and their gentlemen or ladies' charm, under the influence of alcohol, would be deeply respected. Confucian thinking emphasizes the "wine virtues" for which the drinker is to uphold. Confucianists do not oppose having alcohol; using wine to pay tribute to ancestors, to p

Qingdao Beer is an internationally recognizes Chinese beer brand.

Many supermarkets supply imported grape wine.

    Chinese drinking courtesies and customs were born almost at the same time as wine was invented. Some customs have been kept until today. "Marriage wine feasts" have long been synonymous with weddings. To prepare for "marriage wine feasts" is the same as preparing for weddings. To drink "marriage wine" means going to attend a wedding. At a wedding banquet, the bride must propose toasts to the parents and guests. The newly weds must also have "arm-crossed wine" to imply "a hundred years of" happy marriage. On the third day after the wedding, the bride must take the groom back to her parents" home. The bride's family will host a banquet to welcome the guests; this is called "homecoming wine." For a newborn baby, "month-old wine" or "hundredth- day wine" is popular banquets held for celebration according to Chinese tradition. When the baby is a month or one hundred days old, the parents of the child will put on a few tables of feasts for treating family and good friends. Most guests will bring gifts or will wrap money inside a small red paper envelope called a "red bag," for the child's family. "Longevity wine" is a birthday feast prepared for elders in the family. A senior of sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety or even a hundred years old can be called "da shou," or "grand longevity." Most times, the banquet is prepared by the elder's sons or daughters, or the grandchildren; attendees include family members and dear friends.

    Each of the several major holiday celebrations of the Chinese all has its corresponding wine feast and celebration. On Chinese New Year's Eve, people drink "New Year's Wine," wishing for good health and closeness in the family in the New Year. On the fifty day of the fifth lunar month, the Dragon Boat Festival, people will have changpu wine (wine made from Gladiolus hybridus, an aquatic plant from which fragrant oils can be extracted. Changpu wine is a compound drink made by taking changpu fluid as flavoring, or directly mixing it with yeast made from barley and pea, to make sorghum wine after immersion and soaking) to ward off evil and bring peace and security. For Mid-autumn Festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, whether it is uniting with family or meeting with dear friends, drinking while admiring the full moon is to be a part of the evening. This is also the time when sweet-scented osmanthus flowers are in full bloom. So drinking osmanthus wine is also a part of the Mid-autumn tradition. On the Double-Ninth Festival, the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, there has been the custom to climb to great heights and enjoy wine; many regions prefer having "chrysanthemum wine" on this day.

A bar street by Pearl River in Guangzhou.

    Alcohol drinks not only fused with the daily lives of the Chinese, people even use it to communicate different feelings and thoughts. It can be said that wine is all-encompassing in reflecting actions and emotions of humans. The feelings, either sorrow and pain, or the joyous wonders, all reserved only for the drinker to experience.

    The Chinese's wine culture is of long-standing history and well established. Wine influenced the ways in which the Chinese live, and have shaped the personality, of the Chinese. Particularly in recent decades, with accelerated developments in China's economy, people's lifestyles are becoming ever multi-faceted. With traditional winemaking techniques and drinking habits still earning the favors of the public, imported wines, beers and other types of liquor from foreign countries are also gaining popularity. When friends and family gather to enjoy a good drink, the selection of alcohol drinks has imperceptibly broadened. Thus drinking becomes more enjoyable and making China's liquor-culture even more vivid. The bars and pubs springing forth around the country in recent years represent the spending preference of the younger generations. Many foreigners just setting foot in China are awed by the popularity of bars in China's major cities. The bars' internationalized styles also reflect the Chinese's carefree and open lifestyle.