Copper Smelting and Bronze Ware

The earliest copper objects of the world were found in Turkey, dating back 9,000 years. The earliest bronze ware in China was made more than 6,000 years ago, in the period of the Yangshao culture. Ancient Chinese first made bronze and then pure copper. The bronze articles unearthed in 

These wares were cast by split molds, which show that the bronze industry was at quite high a level of development. Later in the ruins of the Qijia culture, archaeologists unearthed articles made of bronze, brass, copper, bronze mirror, crucibles, and residues from copper smelting. The findings proved that in 2000 BC, bronze was widely made and a special kind of bronze had been developed for making mirrors. In the Xia Dynasty the bronze making technology developed in a comprehensive way. A three-leg wine vessel unearthed from the Erlitou site in Yanshi of Henan Province is a representative of Xia bronze ware. The vessel is made of a copper-tin alloy, with 92% copper and 7% tin, and cast in complex molds. Also unearthed were various molds, which show that bronze smelting and casting were quite common at that time. The Xia Dynasty belonged to the Bronze Age.

    The heyday of the Bronze Age in China lasted more than 1,600 years, from the Shang Dynasty, Western Zhou Dynasty, the Spring and Autumn Period, to the early years of the Warring States Period. The bronze ware of the time included ritual and musical instruments, weapons, and miscellaneous articles. The musical instruments were mainly used in sacrificial activities in ancestral temples. The ritual instruments were used in various rites- some were exhibited at temples, some were used for dining and washing, and some were to be buried with the dead as funeral objects. The ritual bronze ware was of a divine nature and not used in daily life. Most of the bronze ware was ritual articles, which came from excellent craftsmanship. The ritual and musical instruments were the best of bronze ware in ancient China.

The ritual articles included those for cooking and dining, wine and water containers, and divine figures. The weapons were mainly ge (dagger-axe with a long pole), shu (long-pole edged weapon), ji (halberd), and mao (spear). The bronze ware was decorated with various mysterious patterns, mainly after the images of animals, such as dragon, tiger, ox, goat, deer, phoenix, and birds, as well as human beings. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, the patterns on bronze ware became less mysterious, but dragon and phoenix remained the main theme of them, though in varied forms.

    Ancient Chinese bronze ware was marked by fine craftsmanship and large size. Bronze masters developed complex pottery molds, which were made of selected clays, in precise processes, and cut with various patterns. The wares were either cast as a whole piece or in parts and then joined together in further casting. Later the dewaxing process was developed, which made it unnecessary the casting of separate parts. This process was indeed a breakthrough in bronze metallurgy. Ancient Chinese also developed the technique of embedding other materials in bronze ware for aesthetical purposes. The materials used included calaite, jade, siderite, and copper; during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, gold and silver were also used. A salient feature of the bronze ware of the Western Zhou Dynasty is the inscriptions on them. The Dayu Ding caldron of King Kangwang had an inscription of 291 Chinese characters, and the Maogong Ding caldron, an inscription of 497 characters. These inscriptions not only testify to the fine craftsmanship of the bronze ware makers, but are also important historical records themselves, which complement relevant historical documents.

    Quite a number of the bronze artifacts of the Shang and Zhou dynasties that have been unearthed are heavy ones. The most well-known among them is the Simuwu Fangding (rectangular caldron), unearthed at the Yinxu site in Anyang of Henan Province. A vessel of the late Shang, it is 133 cm high, ll0 cm long and 78 cm wide, with a weight of 875 kg. It is the heaviest ancient bronze article in China and one of the largest in the world. Its design is solemn and elegant, with patterns on all sides of its exterior. The image of this caldron is often used as a symbol of ancient Chinese civilization.

    In the Eastern Zhou Period, the bronze smelting technique developed rapidly. Kao Gong Ji, a special work on craftsmanship in the Qi State, recorded in detail the proportions of six bronze alloys for making bells and caldrons, axes, halberds, swords, arrows, and mirrors. As wars were frequent, the making of weapons developed rapidly. Especially well-known are swords of the Wu and Yue kingdoms, and masters of sword making such as Ganjiang and Ou Yezi. Some swords that have been buried underground for more than 2,000 years are still quite sharp and cut easily folds of paper. The sword of Goujian, king of the Yue, was unearthed in 1965. As the sword had gone through certain chemical treatment, its surface was covered with anti-rusting diamond-shape patterns. When unearthed, the sword was rust free and as shiny as a newly made one.

    Another treasure of ancient Chinese bronze ware that has shocked the world is the two sets of chariots and horses unearthed at the mausoleum of Emperor Shihuang of the Qin Dynasty in Lintong of Shaanxi Province. The No.1 or lead chariot was drawn by four horses, with the driver in the driver's seat, under a large umbrella. The No.2 chariot, also drawn by four horses, measures 3.17 meters long and 1.06 meters high. The two sets of chariots and horses are the most complicated bronze works that have ever been unearthed. The half-size chariots and horses after real ones were constructed with bronze parts that were delicately cast. The chariots and horses were colorfully painted, and decorated with a large number of gold and silver ornaments.

    Copper smelting in ancient China was highly developed. The smelters turned out not only bronze, but also copper, brass, and copper-nickel alloys. The large-scale production was also unrivalled in the world. The site of ancient copper mine at the Tonglu Mountain in Daye of Hubei Province ran 2 km from north to south and 1 km from east to west, covering an area of 140,000 sq m. The mine was more than 50 m underground, with shafts, tunnels and working faces to form a complete mining system. Primary dressing of ores was carried out in the tunnels, and the supporting, lighting, drainage and lifting of ores were all solved.