Succeeding the Wucai porcelain of the Kangxi Period, the Fencai porcelain, which emerged at the end of the Kangxi Period, reached full maturity during the Yongzheng Period. Just as the Wucai which was also referred to as Kangxi cai, the Fencai can also be called Yongzheng cai. Being just the 

Fencai Yuhuchun vase. Yongzheng period, Qing Dynasty.

    Fencai porcelain was built upon the foundation of Wucai porcelain and derived from enamel coloring. In which case lead powder was first mixed into wucai pigments and then added with a compound of aluminum oxide, silicon and arsenic, commonly known as opaline white. The purpose of this was to intentionally tone down the hues through the translucency of the white. The ink and wash and Chinese "bone stroke" techniques, usually applied to painting on rice paper, were used to render the designs and motifs on Fencai porcelain to produce a sense of depth and mass. The hue levels were numerous and the colors were smooth and soft. Since the colors show areas of strong and light, the sense of depth was quite apparent. The body of Fencai was pure white without any impurity; some have iron contents of only 0.7%-0.8%. The images of flowers, birds, insects and fish appeared realistic and compelling. The true masters can produce quality images of "flowers that collected dew drops" and "butterflies with visible fine hairs." This fully demonstrated the meticulous detail and beauty of porcelain from the Yongzheng Period.

    The advent of Fencai, where images were painted directly on the porcelain body, was very much associated with enamel coloring on porcelain, or cloisonn6 enamel. Fencai, since its creation, has been considered an important category in Chinese porcelain. The reason was not only for its high crafts and exquisite beauty, but more importantly, it was the historical setting, when the new Fencai craft won both Chinese and Western support.

    At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu emperor gathered in his courts a number of erudite men from Europe. These accomplished Europeans walked the halls of the Qing courts and introduced Western science, technology and culture to members of the upper social class and intellectuals of Chinese society. These men included the French Missionary, Mailla (Chinese name was Feng Bingzheng) who was versed in the Chinese language, poetry and history; the Portuguese with proficiency in music, Thomas Perira (Chinese name was Xu Risheng); the Italian Matteo Ripa (Chinese name was Ma Guoxian), hired as imperial painter; Italian interpreter T. Pedrini (Chinese name was De Lige) who worked in the office of translation; the French priest J. F. Gerbillon (Chinese name was Zhang Cheng) who worked as a

Fencai Duomu ewer with floral scroll pattrens. Qianlong period, Qing Dynasty. Collection of the Palace Museum.	Guangcai flat bottle crackled glaze. H 25 cm, Dia. 75 cm at mouth, Dia.  cm at base. Qianlong period,Qing Dynasty.Collection of the Guangdong Provincial Museum.

(Chinese name was Lang Shining) who entered the courts as  imperial painter in the first year of Yongzheng's rule; the Chinese and Western laws expert, Italian man P. M. Grimaldi (Chinese name was Min Mingwo); French sinologist D. Parrenin (Chinese name was Ba Duoming) who accompanied Kangxi to the city of Rehe to conduct classes for the Imperial family youths; and there were many more such foreign intellectuals. They were all prominent figures in the history of Sino-Western exchange, worthy of commemoration. Each and every one of them made their own share of contribution to the spreading of Chinese cultures westwards.

      At this time, all kinds of handicrafts and art works from Europe were being brought to China by ambassadors and missionaries. In the emperor's eyes, the beauty of cloisonn6 enamel seemed to outshine the popular Wucai and Doucai porcelains and was better suited for the lavish decorations of the imperial family. French scholar F. Fontaney (Chinese name was Hong Ruo), special envoy of King Louis XIV to China, worked in the inner chamber of the Qing imperial palace. He wrote a letter back to his country, and what followed was an entire shipment of magnificent cloisonn6 enamel wares at the doorsteps of the Qing courts. Since the 50th year of the Kangxi period (1711 A.D.), the Qing courts began using imported rouge red and opaline white as coloring to test-make enameled porcelain ware. Enamelware artisan Graverean was officially appointed as a member of the imperial production house, directing the research on the technique to replace enamel on copper cast with enameled porcelain.

By the 59th year of the Kangxi Period (1721A.D.), application of enamel on porcelain was in essence a success; works included mostly vessels for daily use, such as dishes, bowls, vases, pots and so on. However, the illustrations on the porcelain were not yet refined. Most of the images were the conventional ground color with floral motifs and calligraphy inscriptions. The motifs were rather simple with heavy colors that appeared a bit too solemn. The enamel used were all imported from foreign countries, including colors of red, yellow, white, pink, blue, purple, green, black and so on.

Small cloisonne copper plate (four in a set), L 10cm, H 2 cm. Qianlong period, Qing Dynasty. Collection of the Museum of Macao.

Fencai plate of good fortune; a Kind of vessel for appetizers and tea snacks, also am elegant collectible. Guangxu Period, Qing Dynasty.

Fencai Zun with the Pattern of a hundred deer. Qianlong period, Qing Dynasty.

Kangxi's enameled porcelains were usually executed in floral decorations. With the Western painters joining the making, the finished product was more or less influenced by Baroque style motifs and designs which were popular in Europe at the time.Such a sumptuous and lavish d6cor was exactly what the Qing court and palaces needed.

    After Emperor Yongzheng succeeded the throne, his love for cloisonng enamel was even stronger than his father Kangxi; he even personally joined the design and illustration process of enameled porcelain. He was also keen on quality control of the raw materials, thus the enameled porcelain wares of his time were much improved from before. The bodies were spotlessly white and the enamel pigments were fine and gorgeous. Some vessels had bodies as thin as egg shells. The colored illustrations were no longer limited to floral motifs, but were more akin to the richness of traditional Chinese realistic paintings, characterized by fine brushwork and close attention to detail and meticulous colors.

   With added influence of the West, the painting style had an even stronger sense of layers and depth. However, the composition and layout were mostly based on traditional Chinese paintings, with poetry, calligraphy, painting and seal prints fused into one. The added delicate calligraphy and the seal prints gave the overall

image a more scholarly feel. This unique fusion of styles continued its way onto Fencai porcelain, from the mid-Qing Dynasty onwards, forging a strong link between Jingdezhen porcelain decoration and contemporary paintings at the time.

    Yongzheng cai was mainly a display of paintings and illustrations, complemented by engravings, prints, etchings, embossed and pierced sculptures and more. The painting style was a continuation of the elegance and stylishness of the Kangxi

period, with brushwork that was even more sensitive and delicate. The composition was relaxed and uncluttered, with everything in balance.

At this time, flowers and birds paintings were often influenced by Yun Shouping's "boneless" style; while landscape paintings were aimed at the wildly popular and highly recognized paintings of the Four Wang's, who were the four most praised painters at the time by the last name of Wang. Only the colors were less intense than the Kangxi period. The "armed general on horseback" genre and characters from novels were still in fashion. When images of maidservants were portrayed, it was not unusual for them to be wearing Han Chinese clothing. Their bodies and faces were slender and attractive, as slim figured females were very much in fashion at the time. In terms of motifs, floral designs were the most rich and numerous; there were peonies, peach blossoms, Chinese flowering crabapples, chrysanthemums and so on.

     Imported Western coloring no longer satisfied the need for traditional Chinese painting atmosphere in imperial enameled porcelain. Therefore, the porcelain artisans of the courts began to produce their proprietary enamel coloring and eventually achieved 18 different colors and shades; 9 more than what was originally imported from the West.

    Although the magnificence and unmatched sense of realism of cloisonn6 enamel

cannot be denied, the high cost of enamel coloring prevented it from becoming popular among the masses. Therefore, it was subject to limited production within the imperial courts. The enameled porcelain of the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong periods often had markings of the year of production using blue and rouge. Kangxi enameled porcelain can

Qianjiangcai rectangular pierced pillow ends (pair), with illustration. Guangxu period, Qing Dynasty.

   These were important evidences identifying enameled porcelain of the early-Qing. These types of porcelain with relatively expensive pigments and meticulous illustrations were owned by the courts only. Aside from certain pieces bestowed to officials deserving of the honor, the common people had rarely laid eyes on them.

For this reason alone, counterfeit enamelware was later created; some were almost impossible to tell apart from the authentic ones.

    To make Fencai more realistic and accessible for the common people, the porcelain craftsmen of Jingdezhen added solvents and snowy white into traditional Wucai, lowering the intensity of hues and the maturing temperature. Thus the brightly colored Wucai became soft and elegant. The most important pigment of Fencai was Opaline white, which was a component in a series of colors, including powder yellow, imperial pink, pine green, jade green and others, which were characterized by opaqueness, powdery effect and thickness to the touch. Opaline white's most prominent quality showed through when it came to painting detailed texture such as garments and flower petals. It was applied as a layer of under paint; when other colors were applied on top, the rendered objects seemed more three dimensional, just as cloisonn6 enamel images were.

    Fencai porcelain had a rich selection of colors, appearing soft and delicate. Its modes of expression were more varied than Qinghua or Wucai porcelain. Through dying and shading, Fencai subject matters became more realistic and three dimensional. Therefore, as soon as it hit the stores, it received welcome from the people. It was not only the mainstream

 

product of the Imperial kilns, the common people's kilns also produced Fencai in large quantities. Soon it superceded the market share of Wucai porcelain. The Yongzheng and Qianlong periods were the peak of Fencai development. The works of the Imperial kilns were perfect in everyway, while the commoner's

Fencai dual-bodied vase with Western figures. Qianlong period, Qing Dynasty.

Fencai teapot with chrysanthemum patterns on window, Qianlong Period, Qing Dynasty.

kilns made Fencai that were vivid and natural.

By the time of Qianlong, since Fencai porcelain masterpieces were targeted towards the nobility and the upper class, all kinds of Fencai screens and vessels such as long-necked and round-bodied vasei~calabash vase and the bull-headed zun were very popular. Many more innovative designs were being realized without considering the cost of development. The selections were more numerous than porcelain of any former dynasty. Fencai porcelain writing-brush pots, inkstones, writing-brush shafts, paper weights, ink paste containers, glue containers and so on, were all innovatively and meticulously crafted. The Ruyi, dragon head belt buckles, the snuff bottle and other traditional products made of other materials were all given their porcelain carnations.These articles were reflections of the lifestyle and amusement of the ruling class.

    Fencai porcelain in the Qianlong period, though perfected in crafting and

decorative technique, had forms that still left something to be desired. Some pieces were overly elaborated while others were flaunting modeling technique; still others tried to achieve both, but none were of refined taste. The feeling of lavishness was overwhelming while not enough elegance and natural beauty was shown. Some attempts at novelty even failed to retain the most fundamental qualities of porcelain. Later in the Jiaqing (1796-1820 A.D.) and Daoguang (1821-1850 A.D.) periods, Fengcai porcelain production was still ongoing and strong. However, not many quality pieces were produced. What's worthy of mentioning was Emperor Xianfeng (ruled from 1851-1861 A.D.), who personally wrote the year and make label in regular script on porcelain, was acclaimed by connoisseurs for his skilled calligraphy.

     With frequent exchange of artistic styles with Europe, Jingdezhen's style of

 ceramics since the mid-Qing Dynasty had a complete facelift. The simplicity, elegance and robustness in the former Kangxi period were no longer; instead, a gorgeous, delicate and over elaborated style took hold as the representative court style in this last of the feudal era. Simple and natural appearance was no longer favored in ceramics, as synthetic decorations became the mainstream. This trend lasted well into the Republic of China (1912-1949 A.D.).

     The formation of the Fencai porcelain style during this time had another very important factor - the arts of the common city people. During this time period, the variety of motifs of auspiciousness, commonly found on porcelain ware of Jingdezhen and commoner's kilns, all had origins of folklores and folk customs. The time of Yongzheng was when the courts sought the combined philosophy of Confucian, Buddhist and Daoist teachings, and the culture of the common city people was fast on the rise. In order to reflect upon these folk customs, the motifs of auspiciousness were able to make its way onto the orthodox forms of art within the Qing courts. Not only did Imperial Fencai porcelain sport imagery of good luck, the overall decorative style of all of Jingdezhen was immersed in auspiciousness.

    Popular motifs metaphorically hinted at events of good fortune such as success in career and high status; achieving financial prowess; good luck in the New Year; the continuation of family lineage and so on. These images were based on traditional ceramic motifs, popular engravings and prints, as well as other forms of handicrafts. Since the Chinese see

Fencai Meiping vase with floral spreads and good luck patterns. Qianlong period, Qing Dynasty.

Fencai imperial ewer with poetry inscription in decorated window on yellow ground. Jiaqing period, Qing Dynasty.

     Jingdezhen, from Yuan Dynasty Qinghua to Fencai of the late-Qing, kept perfecting its porcelain-making crafts. The application of Fencai decorations and illustrations, especially, has yielded many successful formulas. The inseparable connection between porcelain illustrations and contemporary paintings has been kept until this very day.

In order to inherit these formulas of success, Jingdezhen artisans composed and passed down many mnemonic rhymes to help succeeding generations remember these formulas. One such example, tells of the proportion of the human facial features, which is divided into eight portions. The posture of the human figure is divided into head-lengths; 7 heads when a person is standing, 5 when sitting on a stool and 3 heads when the person sits cross-legged on the ground. When differentiating people by age and gender, the rule of "attractive ladies have no shoulders; strongmen and warriors have no necks; elderly men have no chests; and young children have no waists" applies. The dynamic states of people's bodies are exemplified by the fair young lady and the witty maidservant; the young gentlemen and his smart pageboy.

    The category of people known as Gaoshi, highly erudite and transcendental persons, were depicted as free and above earthly society, often found in scenes of nature and self-amusement. Aside from formulaic rhymes about people, there were also few that spoke of objects and nature, such as color schemes of the four seasons being "spring of green, summer of jade, bluish autumn and grayish winter."

 The ceramic artisans of Jingdezhen relied on the passing of these rhymes from master to disciple; these were words of experience and knowledge. Through diligent observations and repeated experiments, these artisans attained the most profound understanding and handling of people's gestures and expressions; even their movements and voices can be conveyed through still images. They also used backgrounds and objects to develop atmosphere, animals and props to indicate the identity and mood of people portrayed. Eventually the artisans discovered artistic laws in implementing these techniques so that the making of porcelain can be a smooth and formulaic process.